About the lecture

In this lecture, we move beyond the experimental method to introduce observational methods in the context of behaviours, focusing in particular on: (i) observational methods being key under circumstances wherein variable manipulation is not possible, and/or when you want a pure and honest representation of behaviour; (ii) an example of Dr O’Sullivan’s own research on imitation, describing the importance of clear behaviour definition guidelines for observers to ensure both inter- and intra-rater reliability; (iii) ad libitum sampling, whereby an observer notes down behaviours they see over time; (iv) the benefits and drawbacks of this type of observation, specifically centring around biases and objectivity; (v) other sampling methods, including focal and scan sampling; (vi) temporal sampling methods, focusing on continuous and time/interval sampling.

Observational Study – The experimenter passively observes the behaviour of the participants without any attempt at intervention or manipulation of any observed behaviours. These typically occur under naturalistic conditions, rather than through random assignment to experimental conditions.

Ad Libitum (Ad Lib) Sampling – No systematic constraints are placed on what is recorded or when. The observer records whatever they can see and that they think is relevant at the given time (opportunistic observation).

Focal Sampling – The observer chooses one individual or specific group upon which to focus, recording only their behaviour for the duration of the observation.

Scan Sampling – The behaviour of an observed group is 'scanned', meaning that it is recorded without a focus on one specific group and without the freedom to record behaviours at any given time.

Continuous Sampling – Where an observer records every occurrence of a behaviour in a given time period.

Time Sampling – Where an observer records behaviours at prescribed intervals e.g. every 2 minutes.

About the lecturer

Dr Eoin O’Sullivan is an associate lecturer in the School of Psychology and Neuroscience at the University of St Andrews. Dr O’Sullivan teaches the first-year undergraduate research methods course and is interested in uncovering novel teaching techniques in the field of research methods and statistics, within psychology. Some of Dr O’Sullivan’s recent publications include ‘Automatic imitation effects are influenced by experience of synchronous action in children’ (2018) and ‘Understanding imitation in Papio papio: the role of experience and the presence of a conspecific demonstrator’ (2022).